The discovery of America & that of a passage to East Indies by Cape of Good Hope are two greatest & most important events recorded in history of mankind. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations
What Drove Age of Discovery?
Age of Discovery spanning 15th to 17th centuries was one of most transformative periods in world history marking beginning of sustained European exploration & overseas expansion. Its primary motive was not merely curiosity but commerce a desperate European need for spices such as black pepper, cloves, nutmeg & cinnamon which were crucial for preserving food in pre refrigeration era & for their medicinal & culinary uses.
The trigger was fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Turks in 1453 which cut off traditional land based trade routes to East forcing European powers to seek a sea route to India & Southeast Asia origin of these exotic & high-value commodities.
Portugal due to its favorable geographic position on Atlantic coast & its early investments in maritime navigation under Prince Henry Navigator emerged as pioneer of this new maritime order.
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Portugal
First to Arrive, First to Colonize
In 1498 Vasco da Gama guided by a Gujarati pilot Abdul Majid reached Calicut (modern day Kozhikode, Kerala) establishing first direct sea link between Europe & India. This monumental voyage marked beginning of European colonial ambition in East.
Portuguese quickly transitioned from trade to conquest. By 1503 they had established their first fortified factory in Cochin. In 1510 under Afonso de Albuquerque they captured Goa from Sultan of Bijapur making it capital of Portuguese India.
Portuguese Settlements
| Year | Location | Significance |
| 1503 | Cochin | First factory & base in India |
| 1510 | Goa | Headquarters of Portuguese rule |
| 1531 | Diu | Strategic naval outpost in Gujarat |
| 1534 | Bassein (Vasai) | Acquired from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat |
| 1535 | Daman | Another key port on west coast |
Notable Governors
Francisco de Almeida (1505 to 1509)
As first Governor & Viceroy Almeida emphasized naval supremacy through his Blue Water Policy aimed at controlling Indian Ocean without extensive territorial engagement.
He defeated combined Ottoman, Egyptian & Gujarati navies in Battle of Diu (1509) securing Portugal naval dominance.
Afonso de Albuquerque (1509 to 1515)
Considered real architect of Portuguese power in East Albuquerque expanded territorial control to Goa, Malacca & Hormuz.
He forged alliances, suppressed social practices like Sati, encouraged intermarriage with local women & actively promoted Christianity.
Nuno da Cunha (1529 to 1538)
Shifted Portuguese capital from Cochin to Goa.
Acquired Bassein from Sultan of Gujarat strengthening control over Konkan coast.
Legacy
Introduced crops such as potatoes, chillies, tomatoes, cashew, pineapples & tobacco.
Laid foundations for Catholic Christianity in India especially in Goa.
Set up first printing press in Indian languages.
Brought European architectural styles particularly Baroque seen in Goan churches.
Yet Portugal limited manpower, rigid control from Lisbon, religious intolerance (Goa Inquisition) & annexation by Spain (1580) led to their decline culminating in their naval defeat by British at Battle of Swally (1612).
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Dutch
Commercial Titans Without Imperial Ambition
Formed in 1602 Dutch East India Company (VOC) was world first multinational corporation & stock trading company. The Dutch aimed to dominate spice trade & establish factories along Indian coast to source saltpetre, indigo & textiles.
Dutch Settlements
| Location | Current State | Notes |
| Pulicat | Tamil Nadu | First Dutch factory (1610) |
| Masulipatnam | Andhra Pradesh | Early trading base |
| Surat | Gujarat | Competitive trade hub |
| Chinsurah | West Bengal | Bengal’s Dutch stronghold |
| Cochin | Kerala | Temporarily held from Portuguese |
| Nagapattinam | Tamil Nadu | Became headquarters later |
Despite their strong presence Dutch prioritized Southeast Asia (Indonesia) after Treaty of Breda (1667) & began withdrawing from India especially after their defeat in Battle of Bedara (1759) by British.
Danish
Quiet Traders, Quieter Exit
Danish East India Company formed in 1616 was a minor player with limited territorial or commercial influence.
Danish Ports
Tranquebar (1620) in Tamil Nadu Their major base, focused on trade & missionary work.
Serampore (1755) in Bengal A peaceful trading station.
Nicobar Islands Temporarily under Danish control.
Unable to compete with larger powers Danes sold all their Indian holdings to British in 1845.
French
Late Arrivals, Brief Contestants
Compagnie des Indes Orientales founded in 1664 under Jean-Baptiste Colbert aimed to establish France as a maritime colonial power in East.
Key Settlements
Surat (1668), Masulipatnam (1669), Chandernagore & Pondicherry (1674).
François Martin established Pondicherry as French headquarters.
Joseph François Dupleix governor of Pondicherry sought to dominate Indian politics through local alliances during Carnatic Wars.
But French ambitions were crushed by British in Battle of Wandiwash (1760). The Treaty of Paris (1763)allowed France to retain trading rights but without military control.
Major Years
| Year | Event/Development | Details |
| 1664 | Formation of Compagnie des Indes Orientales | Founded by Louis XIV on advice of Finance Minister Colbert; state-controlled, unlike private English Co. |
| 1668 | 1st French factory in India | Established at Surat by François Caron |
| 1669 | 2nd factory (1st on East Coast) | Established at Masulipatam by Mercara |
| 1673 | Chandernagore acquired | Acquired from Shaista Khan, Mughal Governor of Bengal |
| 1674 | Trading center established at Pondicherry | François Martin became 1st Governor (1674–93; 1697–1706) |
| 1693 | Pondicherry captured by Dutch | |
| 1697 | Pondicherry returned to French | As per Treaty of Ryswick |
| 1720 | French East India Company reconstituted | |
| 1720–1742 | Governors Lenoir & Dumas revived French power | Occupied Mahe (1725), Yanam (1723), Karaikal (1739) |
| 1742 | Dupleix became Governor of Pondicherry | Shift from trade to imperial ambition |
| 1744–1761 | Series of conflicts with British | Fought in SE India & Bengal |
| 1761 | Battle of Wandiwash | British decisively defeated French |
| 1763 | Treaty of Paris | Pondicherry & other settlements returned to France |
| 1954 | Integration of French enclaves with India | Pondicherry, Karaikal, Yanam, Mahe & Chandernagore |
French Governors & Officials in India
| Name | Tenure/Period | Role/Contribution |
| François Martin | 1674–1693; 1697–1706 | First Governor of Pondicherry; laid foundation of French settlement in India. |
| Lenoir | c. 1720–1730s | Reconstituted French company; helped revive French power in India. |
| Dumas | c. 1730s–1742 | Expanded French possessions; occupied Yanam, Mahe & Karaikal. |
| Joseph François Dupleix | 1742–1754 | Governor of Pondicherry; shifted focus from trade to imperial expansion; rival of British. |
| Count de Lally (Thomas Arthur de Lally) | 1756–1761 | Sent by France to recover losses; failed at Battle of Wandiwash, marking French decline. |
English
Traders Turned Conquerors
Perhaps most influential foreign power in Indian history British East India Company established in 1600 began merely as a trading entity with no territorial aspirations.
Their entry into India was facilitated by diplomacy & tact.
Relations with Mughal Empire
In 1608 Captain William Hawkins reached Jahangir court to seek trading privileges but was rebuffed.
Later in 1615 Sir Thomas Roe as ambassador of King James I secured royal Farmans (imperial orders) from Jahangir granting British right to establish factories at Surat, Ahmedabad & Agra.
Unlike Portuguese British respected Mughal protocols & refrained from religious imposition which earned them trust & economic access.
Over time British gained footholds in
Surat (1612) after defeating Portuguese at Swally.
Madras (1639) acquired from Raja of Chandragiri, later fortified as Fort St. George.
Bombay (1661) gifted by Portugal to Britain as part of dowry of Catherine of Braganza.
Calcutta (1690) founded by Job Charnock, became capital of British India.
Transition from Trade to Rule
The decline of Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb death in 1707 combined with British victory in
Battle of Plassey (1757) over Siraj-ud-Daula & Battle of Buxar (1764) over a coalition of Nawabs & Mughal emperor led to Company becoming de facto ruler of large parts of India by end of 18th century.
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Early English Presence & Key Developments in India
| Year(s) | Person/Entity | Event/Development | Details |
| 1579 | Thomas Stevens | First Englishman to reach India via Cape of Good Hope | Landed in Goa; a Jesuit missionary |
| 1590s | Ralph Fitch | Visited India during Akbar’s reign | Early English traveler |
| 1599 | John Mildenhall | Arrived in India via land route | First Englishman to do so |
| 1600 (Dec 31) | Queen Elizabeth I | Charter to East India Company | Monopoly over Eastern trade for 15 years; called “The Governor & Company of Merchants of London…” |
| 1609 | King James I | New Charter | Monopoly extended indefinitely |
| 1608 | Captain William Hawkins | Visit to Jahangir’s Court | Failed to obtain trade concessions due to Portuguese influence |
| 1611 | Captain Middleton | Battle with Portuguese | Defeated them at Bombay |
| 1612 | Captain Best | Battle with Portuguese | Defeated Portuguese at Swally near Surat |
| 1613 | Jahangir | Farman issued | Allowed factory at Surat under Thomas Aldworth; exemption from inland tolls |
| 1615 | Sir Thomas Roe | Ambassador of James I to Jahangir | Factory permissions at Agra, Ahmedabad, Broach & Masulipatam; stayed till Feb 1619 |
| 1639 | Francis Day | Acquisition of Madras site | From ruler of Chandragiri |
| 1640s | British | Fort St. George constructed | Became English HQ on east coast |
| 1651 | Shah Jahan & Shah Shuja | Factory established in Bengal (Hugli) | Granted for Rs. 3000/year |
| 1686–1689 | Aurangzeb vs. British (John Child) | Anglo-Mughal conflict | Hugli sacked by British; Mughal retaliation; British harassment of pilgrims; fined Rs. 1.5 lakh to regain factories |
| 1690 | British | Pardoned by Aurangzeb | Allowed to return to Bengal |
| 1691 | Aurangzeb | Farman issued | Exempted customs duties in Bengal for annual payment |
| 1715 | John Surman | Embassy to Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar | Negotiated trade privileges |
| 1717 | Farrukh Siyar | Famous Farman issued | Free trade in Bengal, Gujarat & Deccan; right to issue Dastaks (passes); “Magna Carta of EIC” |
Important British Forts & Acquisitions
| Year | Fort / Place | By Whom | Details |
| 1605 | Fort Angelo (Kannur) | Portuguese | Built in Kerala |
| 1644 | Fort St. George (Madras) | British | Became eastern HQ |
| 1690 | Fort St. David (Cuddalore) | British | Acquired from Marathas |
| 1698 | Sutanuti, Kalikata, Govindpur | Job Charnock (British) | Formed Calcutta; factory fortified as Fort William |
| 1700 | Fort William (Calcutta) | British | Became major stronghold in Bengal |
Conclusion
From Spices to Sovereignty
What started as a race for peppercorns & cinnamon morphed into a centuries long drama of conquest, conflict & colonialism. The Portuguese may have been first to arrive but it was British who stayed longest & reshaped subcontinent destiny.
Each colonial power Portuguese, Dutch, Danish, French & British left behind distinctive cultural, architectural, linguistic & culinary imprints visible even today in places like Goa, Pondicherry, Serampore, Chinsurah & Fort Kochi.
India prize of East transformed from a land of trade & textiles into crown jewel of British Empire but not before witnessing an extraordinary contest among European greatest maritime nations.
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